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Lot Essay
A Feast of Jades Amidst the Clouds – Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods
Chang Wei-Hwa
In the blink of an eye, the third part of the jade feast is upon us. Following the ‘Neolithic period’ in 2019, and ‘Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties’ in 2020, a remarkable collection of 77 lots from the ‘Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods’ will be presented to collectors and enthusiasts.
This part of the collection is divided into the following sections: ‘Contending Dragons’, ‘Qin-style Jades’, ‘Warring States Seals’, and the ‘Warring States Belt Buckles’. The collection brings together their artistic, academic and archaeology merits.
‘Contending Dragons’ deconstructs the most important motif on jades of this period – dragon – both in form and in decoration, as an expression of power between competing states. The jade dagger with bronze fitting (lot 2754) and the jade bi disc with dragon decoration (lot 2724) are amongst the more important examples amongst this group, and many are accompanied by detailed rubbings that show the difference between the robust dragons of the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BC) and the more convivial examples of the Warring States period (475-221 BC). The majority of these jades are made in the Chu style.
On the other hand, ‘Qin-style jades’ are considered extremely rare amongst jades of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221BC). The Qin state was located to the northwest region, and its geography, culture and economy were very different to those of the eastern states, thus given rise to a very distinctive Qin style as exemplified by several of the jades in the current sale.
Jade is the rarest and most precious of materials that were used for seals in the Warring States period, whether for official or private use, and there are very few extant examples. The four seals included this time are either made of excellent material, or with unique inscriptions, or with masterfully carved finials. The most important is a white jade square seal with an ‘inverted funnel’ finial that is carved with the characters Wen xin jun (Lord of Literary Fidelity) (lot 2760). Research shows that it belonged to the seventh-generation offspring of Confucius, Kong Qian, who was the prime minister of King Anli of Wei, and was awarded the title Wenxinjun. The current seal is one of the most important seals of the Warring States period.
Warring States belt buckles are not only a necessity in the noblemen and upper class’s daily wear, they are also status symbols with careful attention to material and craftsmanship. There are three examples this time that are worthy of note: first is an impressive multimedia example with gilt bronze, jade and glass; second, a refined and elegant example with excellent material decorated with dragon and phoenix; third, a very rare example in shield form. These are complemented by fine agate rings and glass beads that are worthy of appreciation.
I would like to pay special thanks to Mr. Liu Yunhui, vice chairman of the Cultrual Relics Bureau in Shaanxi, whose work in Eastern Zhou Jades excavated in Shaanxi provided the most authoritative material in the ‘Qin-Style Jades’ section. I would also like to thank Mr. Zhang Shuihe for his meticulous rubbings of some of the highlight pieces; Mr. Wang Xinggong for the accurate and vivid line drawings for some of the important pieces; and Mr. Hsiung I-Ching for his research.
I hope the third part of the collection will once again contribute positively to the academic studies as well as the collecting world of Chinese archaic jades.
Spring and Autumn, Warring States; Five Hegemons and Seven Powers
Hsiung Yi-Ching
In the last 3000 years, there have been several large-scale wars involving multiple contesting forces in Chinese history, such as during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period; the Southern and Northern Dynasties of Wei and Jin; the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms; or the Republic era in more recent times. The earliest, longest and most far-reaching of these are the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, which was not only a period when wars broke out between feudal lords in the Eastern Zhou period, but also a period when the Hundred Schools of Thought competed for pre-eminence, and aestheticism as well as various arts and crafts flourished.
In 770 BC, when the court of King Ping of Zhou moved to the east, its influence began to wane. The feudal lords started to breach the etiquettes and rules set out by the Zhou court, and the Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn gained dominance one after another. They looked for ways to strengthen their state finances by optimising their geographical advantage and made economic development their primary focus, resulting in significant social elevation of the merchant class. However, the feudal lords still recognised the Zhou Court as their nominal head, and there was great emphasis on morality in their strategic power play.
In 474 BC, the Warring States period began, and conflicts broke out. The Seven Powers of the Warring States formed vertical or horizontal alliances in order to gain dominance, rendering the Zhou Court weak and vulnerable. In the meantime, various schools of thought emerged, each catering to the needs of the feudal states, some emphasised universal peace, some emphasised statecraft, others humanism, self-cultivation or altruism etc., precipitating the golden age of Chinese philosophy.
The Spring and Autumn and the Warring States period lasted more than 500 years (770 – 221 BC), with year 475 BC as the year of division. The transition period dates between 481 BC, when the Tian clan claimed the dukedom of Qi, replacing the Jiang clan; and to 453 BC, when the Han, Zhao and Wei clans initiated the partition of Jin. These two historical events started as infighting within feudal states, and gave rise to new feudal lords that were not wholly recognized by the Zhou court, which resulted in lasting structural changes to the feudal system. This marks the separation of ‘Spring and Autumn’ and ‘Warring States’into two different periods.
The Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn
Historically, the period between 770 BC to 476 AD is called the Spring and Autumn period, a period of more than 290 years with many conflicts. The History of Lu records more than 480 military campaigns. It is also recorded in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) that during the Spring and Autumn period ‘there were 36 regicides, 52 eradicated states and countless fleeing feudal lords unable to protect their subjects.’ It is estimated that there were around 140 feudal states in the beginning of the Spring and Autumn period. After years of merging, only larger states were left to fight each other, resulting in the succeeding Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn.
There are various versions in the history books as to which are the Five Hegemons. The two most cited combinations are: Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Xiang of Song, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin and King Zhuang of Chu as listed in the Shiji suoyin (Index to Records of the Grand Historian); and Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Zhuang of Chu, King Helu of Wu, and King Goujian of Yue as listed in Xunzi. The first version appears to be the more accepted.
At the height of each of the Five Hegemons’ power, his territory is more or less as follows:
Duke Huan of Qi: Qi State, around the Shandong peninsula
Duke Xiang of Song: Song State, around Shangqiu of Henan province
Duke Wen of Jin: Jin State, including the whole of Shanxi province, eastern and northern Shaanxi province, central and southern Hebei province, western and northern Henan province, northwestern Shandong province, and Inner Mongolia
Duke Mu of Qin: Western Shaanxi province, the very border of China
King Zhuang of Chu: Most of Hunan and Hubei, as well as Chongqing and part of Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu and Jiangxi.
The Wu and Yue States were also very influential in the Spring and Autumn period, and their territories were:
King Heju of Wu: expanding from Nanjing and Yangzhou to Suzhou of Jiangsu province, Suzhou was its capital in the later years
King Goujian of Yue: at the peak, its influence reached Shandong, Anhui, and Shanxi, and was the most powerful state in the southeast.
The Seven Powers of Warring States
Warring States spans 475 to 221 BC. As its name suggests, it is a period of prolonged and brutal wars the likes of which have not been seen before and rarely surpassed since. The purpose for war also changed from vying for leadership in the Spring and Autumn period to pure expansionism. After a period of consolidation in the Spring and Autumn and early Warring States period, there were now fewer feudal states. When Han, Zhao and Wei divided Jin in the mid Warring States period, seven powerful states emerged: Yan, Qin, Chu, Qi, Han, Zhao and Wei – together they were called the Seven Powers of Warring States. Apart from Qin, the other six were all situated east of Mount Yao, therefore, these six were also called ‘The Six Eastern States’.
In the late Warring States, conflicts between these states intensified. As Qin became increasingly powerful, its ambition in unifying the country became more apparent. In 241 B.C., Zhao, Chu, Wei, Yan and Han formed the last alliance to fight Qin, but the Chu army deserted them even before the battles began, resulting in the collapse of the alliance. The Qin army then eliminated the other states one by one in the order of: Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu and Qi, between 230 and 221 B.C., finally unifying the country and ending the Seven Powers.
The territories of the Seven Powers of Warring States are as follows:
Qin: Central and southern Shaanxi, southeastern Gansu and most of Sichuan
Wei: Southern Shanxi, northern, central and eastern Henan
Zhao: Northern and central Shanxi, central and southwestern Hebei, and part of Inner Mongolia
Han: Central and western Henan, and southeastern Shanxi
Qi: Northern Shandong, southern and western Hebei
Chu: Whole of Hubei, parts of Henan, Anhui, Hunan, Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Yan: Northern Hebei, parts of Liaoning and Jilin
In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, apart from the impressive advancement in politics, military strategy, economics, and various schools of philosophy and thought, the development of aesthetics and crafts also benefited from the competition between feudal lords trying to outdo each other. Jade carvings, in particular, showed renewed vigor in the variety of jade material, the refinement craftsmanship and creativity in form and decoration, making this period an important stage in the development of Chinese jade.
The Rise of Jade
Jade had always been a symbol of status for the ruling class in the Shang and Zhou dynasties when it was used for ritual purposes. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, various thinkers attributed moral virtue to jade in concepts such as: ‘the gentleman compares his virtue to jade’; ‘when speaking of a gentleman, one thinks of his warmth like the luster of jade’ etc., equating the luster of jade to that of a man’s character and morality. From the ruling class to ordinary people, all started to wear jade as a symbol of their moral rectitude. The use of iron tools coupled with craftsmen’s expanding repertoire of techniques advanced the art of jade carving, and many other types started to appear alongside ritual objects, such as utility items, adornments as well as display pieces, showing renewed, unique and refined artistry in both form and decoration.
Chang Wei-Hwa
In the blink of an eye, the third part of the jade feast is upon us. Following the ‘Neolithic period’ in 2019, and ‘Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties’ in 2020, a remarkable collection of 77 lots from the ‘Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods’ will be presented to collectors and enthusiasts.
This part of the collection is divided into the following sections: ‘Contending Dragons’, ‘Qin-style Jades’, ‘Warring States Seals’, and the ‘Warring States Belt Buckles’. The collection brings together their artistic, academic and archaeology merits.
‘Contending Dragons’ deconstructs the most important motif on jades of this period – dragon – both in form and in decoration, as an expression of power between competing states. The jade dagger with bronze fitting (lot 2754) and the jade bi disc with dragon decoration (lot 2724) are amongst the more important examples amongst this group, and many are accompanied by detailed rubbings that show the difference between the robust dragons of the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BC) and the more convivial examples of the Warring States period (475-221 BC). The majority of these jades are made in the Chu style.
On the other hand, ‘Qin-style jades’ are considered extremely rare amongst jades of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221BC). The Qin state was located to the northwest region, and its geography, culture and economy were very different to those of the eastern states, thus given rise to a very distinctive Qin style as exemplified by several of the jades in the current sale.
Jade is the rarest and most precious of materials that were used for seals in the Warring States period, whether for official or private use, and there are very few extant examples. The four seals included this time are either made of excellent material, or with unique inscriptions, or with masterfully carved finials. The most important is a white jade square seal with an ‘inverted funnel’ finial that is carved with the characters Wen xin jun (Lord of Literary Fidelity) (lot 2760). Research shows that it belonged to the seventh-generation offspring of Confucius, Kong Qian, who was the prime minister of King Anli of Wei, and was awarded the title Wenxinjun. The current seal is one of the most important seals of the Warring States period.
Warring States belt buckles are not only a necessity in the noblemen and upper class’s daily wear, they are also status symbols with careful attention to material and craftsmanship. There are three examples this time that are worthy of note: first is an impressive multimedia example with gilt bronze, jade and glass; second, a refined and elegant example with excellent material decorated with dragon and phoenix; third, a very rare example in shield form. These are complemented by fine agate rings and glass beads that are worthy of appreciation.
I would like to pay special thanks to Mr. Liu Yunhui, vice chairman of the Cultrual Relics Bureau in Shaanxi, whose work in Eastern Zhou Jades excavated in Shaanxi provided the most authoritative material in the ‘Qin-Style Jades’ section. I would also like to thank Mr. Zhang Shuihe for his meticulous rubbings of some of the highlight pieces; Mr. Wang Xinggong for the accurate and vivid line drawings for some of the important pieces; and Mr. Hsiung I-Ching for his research.
I hope the third part of the collection will once again contribute positively to the academic studies as well as the collecting world of Chinese archaic jades.
Spring and Autumn, Warring States; Five Hegemons and Seven Powers
Hsiung Yi-Ching
In the last 3000 years, there have been several large-scale wars involving multiple contesting forces in Chinese history, such as during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period; the Southern and Northern Dynasties of Wei and Jin; the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms; or the Republic era in more recent times. The earliest, longest and most far-reaching of these are the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, which was not only a period when wars broke out between feudal lords in the Eastern Zhou period, but also a period when the Hundred Schools of Thought competed for pre-eminence, and aestheticism as well as various arts and crafts flourished.
In 770 BC, when the court of King Ping of Zhou moved to the east, its influence began to wane. The feudal lords started to breach the etiquettes and rules set out by the Zhou court, and the Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn gained dominance one after another. They looked for ways to strengthen their state finances by optimising their geographical advantage and made economic development their primary focus, resulting in significant social elevation of the merchant class. However, the feudal lords still recognised the Zhou Court as their nominal head, and there was great emphasis on morality in their strategic power play.
In 474 BC, the Warring States period began, and conflicts broke out. The Seven Powers of the Warring States formed vertical or horizontal alliances in order to gain dominance, rendering the Zhou Court weak and vulnerable. In the meantime, various schools of thought emerged, each catering to the needs of the feudal states, some emphasised universal peace, some emphasised statecraft, others humanism, self-cultivation or altruism etc., precipitating the golden age of Chinese philosophy.
The Spring and Autumn and the Warring States period lasted more than 500 years (770 – 221 BC), with year 475 BC as the year of division. The transition period dates between 481 BC, when the Tian clan claimed the dukedom of Qi, replacing the Jiang clan; and to 453 BC, when the Han, Zhao and Wei clans initiated the partition of Jin. These two historical events started as infighting within feudal states, and gave rise to new feudal lords that were not wholly recognized by the Zhou court, which resulted in lasting structural changes to the feudal system. This marks the separation of ‘Spring and Autumn’ and ‘Warring States’into two different periods.
The Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn
Historically, the period between 770 BC to 476 AD is called the Spring and Autumn period, a period of more than 290 years with many conflicts. The History of Lu records more than 480 military campaigns. It is also recorded in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) that during the Spring and Autumn period ‘there were 36 regicides, 52 eradicated states and countless fleeing feudal lords unable to protect their subjects.’ It is estimated that there were around 140 feudal states in the beginning of the Spring and Autumn period. After years of merging, only larger states were left to fight each other, resulting in the succeeding Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn.
There are various versions in the history books as to which are the Five Hegemons. The two most cited combinations are: Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Xiang of Song, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin and King Zhuang of Chu as listed in the Shiji suoyin (Index to Records of the Grand Historian); and Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Zhuang of Chu, King Helu of Wu, and King Goujian of Yue as listed in Xunzi. The first version appears to be the more accepted.
At the height of each of the Five Hegemons’ power, his territory is more or less as follows:
Duke Huan of Qi: Qi State, around the Shandong peninsula
Duke Xiang of Song: Song State, around Shangqiu of Henan province
Duke Wen of Jin: Jin State, including the whole of Shanxi province, eastern and northern Shaanxi province, central and southern Hebei province, western and northern Henan province, northwestern Shandong province, and Inner Mongolia
Duke Mu of Qin: Western Shaanxi province, the very border of China
King Zhuang of Chu: Most of Hunan and Hubei, as well as Chongqing and part of Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu and Jiangxi.
The Wu and Yue States were also very influential in the Spring and Autumn period, and their territories were:
King Heju of Wu: expanding from Nanjing and Yangzhou to Suzhou of Jiangsu province, Suzhou was its capital in the later years
King Goujian of Yue: at the peak, its influence reached Shandong, Anhui, and Shanxi, and was the most powerful state in the southeast.
The Seven Powers of Warring States
Warring States spans 475 to 221 BC. As its name suggests, it is a period of prolonged and brutal wars the likes of which have not been seen before and rarely surpassed since. The purpose for war also changed from vying for leadership in the Spring and Autumn period to pure expansionism. After a period of consolidation in the Spring and Autumn and early Warring States period, there were now fewer feudal states. When Han, Zhao and Wei divided Jin in the mid Warring States period, seven powerful states emerged: Yan, Qin, Chu, Qi, Han, Zhao and Wei – together they were called the Seven Powers of Warring States. Apart from Qin, the other six were all situated east of Mount Yao, therefore, these six were also called ‘The Six Eastern States’.
In the late Warring States, conflicts between these states intensified. As Qin became increasingly powerful, its ambition in unifying the country became more apparent. In 241 B.C., Zhao, Chu, Wei, Yan and Han formed the last alliance to fight Qin, but the Chu army deserted them even before the battles began, resulting in the collapse of the alliance. The Qin army then eliminated the other states one by one in the order of: Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu and Qi, between 230 and 221 B.C., finally unifying the country and ending the Seven Powers.
The territories of the Seven Powers of Warring States are as follows:
Qin: Central and southern Shaanxi, southeastern Gansu and most of Sichuan
Wei: Southern Shanxi, northern, central and eastern Henan
Zhao: Northern and central Shanxi, central and southwestern Hebei, and part of Inner Mongolia
Han: Central and western Henan, and southeastern Shanxi
Qi: Northern Shandong, southern and western Hebei
Chu: Whole of Hubei, parts of Henan, Anhui, Hunan, Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Yan: Northern Hebei, parts of Liaoning and Jilin
In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, apart from the impressive advancement in politics, military strategy, economics, and various schools of philosophy and thought, the development of aesthetics and crafts also benefited from the competition between feudal lords trying to outdo each other. Jade carvings, in particular, showed renewed vigor in the variety of jade material, the refinement craftsmanship and creativity in form and decoration, making this period an important stage in the development of Chinese jade.
The Rise of Jade
Jade had always been a symbol of status for the ruling class in the Shang and Zhou dynasties when it was used for ritual purposes. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, various thinkers attributed moral virtue to jade in concepts such as: ‘the gentleman compares his virtue to jade’; ‘when speaking of a gentleman, one thinks of his warmth like the luster of jade’ etc., equating the luster of jade to that of a man’s character and morality. From the ruling class to ordinary people, all started to wear jade as a symbol of their moral rectitude. The use of iron tools coupled with craftsmen’s expanding repertoire of techniques advanced the art of jade carving, and many other types started to appear alongside ritual objects, such as utility items, adornments as well as display pieces, showing renewed, unique and refined artistry in both form and decoration.