ANTONINE PERIOD, CIRCA 170-180 A.D.

Marcus Aurelius, emperor from 161 to 180 A.D., is remembered as one of the great Stoic philosophers and the last of the 'Five Good Emperors'. Born in 121 A.D., he was trained in philosophy and governance from a young age, and his reign was marked by military challenges, including defending the empire from invasions by Germanic tribes. Despite these external pressures, Marcus Aurelius is best known for his philosophical work, Meditations, a series of personal reflections on duty, virtue, and self-discipline. His reign embodied the Stoic ideals of leadership, emphasizing wisdom, resilience, and justice.

The sculptural portraits of Marcus Aurelius reflect both his status as an emperor and a Stoic philosopher. Early portraits depict him with a youthful, idealized appearance, with a traditional clean-shaven face, which was common at the time. As his reign progressed, his later portraits show him with a fuller beard, symbolizing wisdom and philosophical depth, aligning with his Stoic beliefs, and with his facial features conveying a sense of introspection and seriousness. The present portrait corresponds to his fourth and final type - the Capitoline Imperatori 38 type, created late in his reign, between 170-180 A.D. For a detailed discussion of the different types see D. E. E. Kleiner, Roman Sculpture, Yale, 1992, pp. 270-273. For another example of the fourth type see fig. 237, op. cit.